5.2.3 Semi-structured interviews with key informants

Semi-structured interviews involve lists of questions to be addressed to knowledgeable individuals in a relaxed and informal way. Unlike questionnaires with standardized questions and closed-ended answers, semi-structured interviews only include general questions. This leaves the interviewer free to rephrase them as appropriate and to add further inquiries such as "Who?" "Where?" "When?" "Why?" and "How?" based on the respondent's answers and conversation flow.

Purpose

Semi-structured interviews can be used to obtain specific, in-depth, quantitative and qualitative information on specific points of interest. Decision-making systems, gender-related issues, use of natural resources, household economics and many other topics can be effectively explored with this tool. Information can be given as well as received during the interview.

Steps in using the tool

• Design an interview guide and a summary form for the responses (similar to those used for focus-group interviews).
  
• Identify the key informants to interview. Some selective identification may be needed to ensure all key perspectives and/or fields of knowledge are covered. New informants can be added on the basis of the results of the early interviews.
  
• Conduct at least one practice interview with other members of the interview team or with other community members to check that the questions are clear and in a logical order.
  
• Organize a time and place for the interview, convenient to the person being interviewed.
  
• Before the interview commences, inform the person of the extent to which you can ensure confidentiality (e.g. the information may be generalized and not attributed to any particular individual).
  
• Make only brief notes during the interviews, filling out the summary form immediately afterwards. A tape recorder can be used, provided the person gives their prior permission.
  
• Unexpected information may surface during interviews. If more than one person is interviewing, the interviewers should discuss together on a daily basis any new information or problems encountered during interviews, as well as the preliminary results. Adjust the interview guide and summary form, if necessary, in response to these findings.

• enables more specific, in-depth information to be gathered than can usually be achieved in group interviews;
  
• much less constrained and more in-depth information obtained than through questionnaires;
  
• encourages two-way communication and the development of relationships with key individuals in the community;
  
• administered in an atmosphere that makes respondents feel at ease;

• can be more convenient for the respondent, as interview time can be suited to their specific schedule and take less time than participation in a group process;
  
• some practice and experience is needed on the part of the interviewer to use this tool appropriately;
  
• interviewer needs to have good communication and summarizing skills.

Photo appraisal and slide language are a way of using photographic images (pictures or slides) to promote reflection and awareness and/or collect specific information. Local people are trained to use a simple (or disposable) camera to take pictures of significant and good and bad features of their lives and their environment. It is important to recruit a variety of photographers (e.g. men and women, farmers and traders) as each will have a different perspective of what is relevant. The pictures or slides are exhibited and discussed in a group or community meeting.

Purpose

Photo appraisal and slide language can be used for a variety of purposes such as participatory environmental assessment, gender analysis and appraisals of traditional and new technologies. Whatever their use, these tools entail an interactive approach. Slide language should not be confused with the use of pre-developed audio-visual materials for educational purposes.

Steps in using the tool

• Train several members of the community to use a camera and to compose and select significant images (practice may be needed).
  
• Discuss with the group the purpose of the session and prepare with them a list of relevant scenes to be photographed. Clarify with the group what each scene is meant to represent.
  
• If necessary, assist the group in taking pictures. Be sure that, for each image, several alternative shots are taken under different light conditions (this will increase the chances of producing good-quality photos).
  
• After developing the photos, meet with the group and help them select the images they would like to show. Images should be relevant, easily recognisable by the audience and of good technical quality. A session usually requires 8-12 good photos or slides.
  
• Start the session by explaining its purpose, and then ask the people who took the images to describe and comment on them. For each image have in mind a few questions to promote discussion if it proves necessary. If slides are used, project the slide long enough for the audience to identify the details and discuss the message. If pictures are used, they should be pinned up (if they are enlarged) or viewed around a table.
  
• Take notes on the main points of the discussion, possibly on a large flip chart or on a blackboard. Use them when wrapping up the session so that, before its conclusion, a list of the problems elicited by the images and possible solutions are considered.

• photo-appraisal and slide language are a creative and participatory way of identifying environmental/conservation issues and the various perspectives on these in the community concerned;
  
• community members identify the messages and the scenes to be used and are encouraged to study and analyze their environment;
  
• the combined images are likely to match the perspectives, priorities and values of the community as a whole;
  
• an effective way of giving a voice to disadvantaged groups;

• slides are a relatively expensive tool. Cameras, slide film, a slide-projector and often a portable generator are required;
  
• photo/slide processing facilities are not always readily available;
  
• it may take some time for the tool to be properly effective. At times, participants may be more attracted by the images per se than by the subject matter.

Transects are observational walks across an area or through a village. The walks help identify important aspects of the local environment (biological, physical and social) which may be discussed on the spot. They can also be used to verify, through direct observation and discussions with people met along the way, the information gathered by other means. At the end of the walk the information collected can be summarized in a transect diagram which includes the key environmental fea-tures identified, an indication of relevant problems and resources, etc.

Purpose

There are two broad categories of transects: social and land-use. The former can provide information on housing density and types, infrastructures and amenities, cultural and economic activities, etc. The latter focuses on environmental and agricultural features such as cultivated land, forests, hill areas, types of soil and crops, and evidence of environmental degradation. The two can also be combined.

Steps in using the tool

• Decide which issues to focus on and what information needs to be gathered.
  
• Identify local people to participate in the walk and explain to them the purpose of the exercise (three to five people will be enough to get a cross-section of views while keeping the discussions focused).
  
• During the walk, take notes on relevant features. Seek clarification from people met along the way. Discuss problems and opportunities.
  
• After the walk discuss the notes with the participants and together prepare a transect diagram of the area covered. The notes and diagram can be used in feedback meetings with the community at large.

• transect walks are a highly participatory, simple and relaxed tool;
  
• they enhance the knowledge of local issues among all participants;
  
• they are useful for checking information shown on official maps;
  
• can identify features not previously noted (because, for example, local informants assumed the researchers would know about them);

• can be time-consuming;
  
• good transect diagrams require some graphic skills.

Trend analysis is used as part of an individual or group interview and consists of an in-depth inquiry on specific problems, how they have evolved, how they are likely to evolve in the future, and what actions need to be taken about them. For large areas, such as a region or country, trend-related data are often available, but for small areas, such as a village, it is unlikely that such data exists, especially data covering a long period of time. Thus, the information to show a pattern of change needs to be obtained locally.

Purpose

The purpose of trend analysis is to assess changes over time. Often, it is used to raise the awareness of people about phenomena that accumulate rather slowly (e.g. soil degradation, population dynamics).

Steps in using this tool

• Decide what topic/subject you wish to assess.
  
• Help the community to decide on the accurate indicators of the subject. For instance, if the subject is community well-being you could ask the participants what constitutes a good life for them. They may list household income, transport facilities, numbers of livestock, access to services such as education and health care, etc.
  
• Ask the participants to say where they think they are now in relation to each indicator, where they were 5-10-20 years ago, where they think they will be in 5-10-20 years. Together with them, draw a graph of the trend for each indicator.
  
• To assess changes in the state of the environment and/or some specific species, you could ask the participants to list the main relevant plants/animals and then, on a horizontal axis, write the periods of time (e.g. 20 years ago, 10 years ago, today, 10 years in the future, etc.). Ask participants to either estimate numbers or the standard of well-being for each of the plants/animals at each of the points of time and record it graphically for each item on the list.
  
• Ask the participants to discuss the trends identified (e.g. what is happening? why? should something be done about it? what? what would be happening then?)

• creates an awareness of potentially negative and positive trends in the community, including the environmental impacts of activities;
  
• group interaction enriches the quality and quantity of information provided;
  
• different points of view existing in the community can be identified;
  
• allows a comparison of trends of different indicators and, possibly, an estimate of the relationships between them;
  
• cheap to use and can be adapted to the materials available (e.g. if there are no paper and pens, the graph can be drawn on the ground using leaves or stones as symbols and numbers);

• relies on memory and subjective judgements, although group interaction can control that to some extent;
  
• this is quite a complicated tool and needs the attention and very active participation of local people.

Land-use mapping can be a lengthy process with multiple benefits for community organizing and conflict resolution (Poole, 1995). It can also be a short exercise as described here. As a short exercise, it consists of representing the geographical distribution of specific features (environmental, demographic, social and economic) in a particular territory as perceived by community members. Participants are asked to draw their own map (on a large sheet of paper, or on the ground), or to plot features on a purchased map or aerial photo. A variety of symbols (e.g. different types of vegetation, alphabetical letters or icons) can be used for specific features. If the map is drawn on the ground, it can be photographed to keep for future reference.

Purpose

Land-use mapping is especially useful for providing a snapshot of the local situation, including property boundaries, the location of key resources, features of particular importance to the community, etc. The map can be a valuable resource for future impact assessment and monitoring exercises. As a snapshot of the land-uses at a particular point in time, it is a source of baseline data.

Steps in using the tool

• In a community or focus group meeting, explain the purpose of the exercise to participants.
  
• Ask them to decide on the symbols to be used for the different features to be identified.
  
• Ask a participant to be responsible for drawing or plotting symbols according to the suggestions of the others, or have the participants construct the map together as a group. At times it may be useful to have a drawing already made (e.g. the boundaries of a forest) and to ask people to add to it (e.g. to delist areas in the forest where different communities collect products).
  
• Promote wide participation by posing questions to individuals as needed. Encourage the group to discuss different perceptions and to reach agreements on conflict points.
  
• Once the map is finalized, it can serve as the basis for identifying problems, resources and opportunities for action, for developing indicators for impact assessment, trend analysis, gender analysis, etc. It can also be useful as a baseline to monitor changes over time.

• provides a broad overview of the community's perception and use of their territory and the resources within it;
  
• encourages communication within the community;
  
• helps people to see the links between natural resources and human activities;
  
• illiterate people can take part in developing the maps;
  
• maps developed by different groups can show surprising differences in perspective and in the importance assigned to given features;

• maps may not be as accurate as desirable. Results of participatory mapping exercises must be complemented by information generated by other participatory tools;
  
• some cultures may have difficulty understanding graphic representations;
  
• there may be a reluctance to identify particular features (such as areas of cultural/religious significance) to outsiders.

Historical mapping is based on a series of participatory mapping exercises aimed at portraying changes in a particular resource and/or settlement pattern in the community at different intervals in its history (see Land-use mapping, 5.2.7). Three or four maps are drawn: one showing the situation which currently exists and one showing the situation which existed at some time in the past (say 20 years ago). Other maps are drawn to show what the area will look like if present trends continue and, if appropriate, to show how people would like the area to look in the "ideal future" (say 20 years from now).

Purpose

Historical mapping helps to introduce the time dimension in participatory environmental appraisal. It also provides visual evidence of changes which have occurred over time and in this way helps to identify causes of environmental degradation. By projecting the results of these activities into the future, the need for changes in behaviour usually become apparent.

Steps in using the tool

• A map of the current situation (environmental, demographic, etc.) is drawn (this is best done on a large sheet of paper) with input from all participants (see the description of land-use mapping).
  
• With the help of elderly community members and historical photos, if available and appropriate, the same exercise is carried out with respect to the situation that existed when these members were much younger (say 20 or 30 years ago).
  
• The current and past maps are compared. Participants identify the major changes which have taken place. They then identify the likely causes of these changes and summarise them on a large sheet of paper or board.
  
• Based on the list of changes and causes, a map is drawn showing the situation which will exist in the community in 20 years if the current trends continue. This can be followed by another "positive" map showing how people would wish their area to look in the "ideal" future (see also the description of guided imagery, 5.3.2).
  
• Discussion about the future map or maps is then facilitated with the aim of identifying the changes that will be needed to reduce environmental degradation and to achieve the "ideal" future.

• stimulates discussion on why and how problems arose and how they affect the community (historical mapping is an invaluable tool in raising awareness and concerns);
  
• helps to identify mid- or long-term solutions to the problems affecting the community;

• can be quite long and complex — three sessions with the interest group or community may be needed to get through the whole sequence of mapping and discussion;
  
• sensitive issues from the past may be raised, including conflicts in the community. If this happens the facilitator should make sure that matters are discussed openly and without acrimony. It may be necessary to move on to the next time period and return to the sensitive issue later;
  
• the analysis is likely to lead to the identification of factors and determinants which are beyond the community's control. Discouragement and frustration can result if ways of addressing these issues are not identified and acted on.

Seasonal calendars are drawings or series of symbols illustrating the seasonal changes in various phenomena of environmental nature (such as rainfall) or social nature (such as labour demand or household income).

Purpose

The calendars generate information on seasonal variations in local problems, resources, constraints and opportunities. For instance, they can explore the use and reliance on various resources, the times when the community or specific groups are fully occupied (and therefore constrained in the contributions they can offer to the conservation initiative), drought or flood seasons, hungry periods, cultural events, and so on. Calendars will differ depending on the occupations of the different stakeholders. For this reason it may be best to do this exercise separately with different interest groups.

Steps to using this tool

• Within a focus or community group, begin with a general discussion on the activities undertaken in the community throughout the year. This helps to focus the group on the task in hand. Make a list of all the issues/activities mentioned so they are not forgotten when the participants start to construct their calendar.
  
• Decide the appropriate format to use; calendars can be drawn in a variety of ways. The format and the symbols for the various items and activities should be selected by the participants. One method which could be suitable for literate communities is to use a large sheet of paper with the months or seasons written along the top and the activities undertaken listed down one side. The participants then fill in the matrix by putting ticks under the months in which each specific activity is undertaken. For illiterate people, symbols can be used to represent the months and activities. For instance, different lengths of sticks can be used to signify the different amounts of rainfall, or the availability of game in the forest. Another method is to draw a large circle with symbols representing the different months around the outside. The circle can then be divided into segments with symbols for different activities placed inside each of the segments.
  
• Once one or more calendars have been drawn, discuss the results. For information on labour demands, ask the group to estimate the proportion of time each spends on the various activities. These proportions can then shown in graphic form on the calendar (e.g. portions or a graph square or of a circle segment).

• seasonal calendars help the initiative staff to plan the best time to work with the community;
  
• help identify various local indicators for monitoring and topics for interview questions;
  
• illustrate the time variations in responsibilities and activities among different groups;

• input can be very subjective and needs to be cross-checked by other tools, e.g. interviews with key informants or observational studies;
  
• sometimes it is difficult to estimate the seasonal changes in the various phenomena or the amount of time spent on activities — especially where the pattern changes throughout the year depending on product availability (e.g. water and fuel collection). To minimize this problem, ask for information in manageable time segments.

In communities around the world, women as well as men are resource users and managers. Yet, in comparison with men, women tend to have different roles, responsibilities, opportunities and constraints, both within the household and in the community. An analysis of gender is therefore important to understand how resource users and managers relate to various resources and to each other. In some parts of the world, for example, laws and/or customs forbid women to own land, regardless of wealth or social class. This limits their options for independent resource management and land-use innovation. It can also lead to their losses being overlooked when compensation is provided for land acquisition for environmental initiatives.

Purpose

Gender analysis in a conservation initiative helps to illustrate the differences in the ways men and women use natural resources, rely on them, and have access to alternatives. It also helps to make explicit the constraints (financial, legal, cultural, etc.) that affect the ability of men and women to respond to, and participate in, a conservation initiative. In this sense, stakeholder analyses, social impact assessments and evaluations should always include a gender dimension.

Steps in using the tool

Gender analysis can refer to any topic and be incorporated in all types of tools and processes, including:

• natural group interviews;
  
• gender-based interviews (natural group, focus and key
  
• informant);
  
• seasonal calendars;
  
• trend analysis;
  
• mapping exercises; and
  
• household interviews (informal discussions)

• Who has access to which resources (finance, equipment, land, natural products, etc.)?
  
• Who uses which natural resources and for what?